As a trade language This article contains phonetic symbols. Without proper, you may see instead of characters. For a guide to IPA symbols, see. Swahili, also known as Kiswahili (translation: language of the Swahili people), is a and the of the. It is a of the region and other parts of eastern and south-eastern Africa, including, and the (DRC)., spoken in the is sometimes considered to be a dialect of Swahili, though other authorities consider it a distinct language. The exact number of Swahili speakers, be it native or second-language speakers, is unknown and a matter of debate.

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Various estimates have been put forward and they vary widely, from 50 million to over 100 million. Swahili serves as a of four nations: Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, and the DRC., the official language in Comoros and also spoken in ( ), is related to Swahili.

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Swahili is also one of the working and officially recognised as a lingua franca of the. South Africa legalized the teaching of Swahili in South African schools as an optional subject beginning in 2020.

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A significant fraction of Swahili vocabulary derives from, in part conveyed by -speaking Muslim inhabitants. For example, the Swahili word for 'book' is kitabu, traceable back to the Arabic word كتاب kitābu (from the 'write').

However, the Swahili plural form of this word ('books') is vitabu, following Bantu grammar in which ki- is reanalysed as a nominal class prefix, whose plural is vi. Contents. Classification Swahili is a of the. In, Swahili is in Bantu zone G, whereas the other Sabaki languages are in zone E70, commonly under the name Nyika. Local folk-theories of the language have often considered Swahili to be a because of its many loan words from, and the fact that Swahili people have historically been Muslims. However, historical linguists do not consider the Arabic influence on Swahili to be significant enough to classify it as a mixed language, since Arabic influence is limited to lexical items, most of which have only been borrowed after 1500, while the grammatical and syntactic structure of the language is typically Bantu.

Although originally written with the Arabic script, Swahili is now written in a introduced by Christian and colonial administrators. The text shown here is the Catholic version of the. Since Swahili was the language of commerce in East Africa, the colonial administrators wanted to standardize it. In June 1928, an interterritorial conference attended by representatives of Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda, and took place in Mombasa. The Zanzibar dialect was chosen as standard Swahili for those areas, and the standard orthography for Swahili was adopted. Current status Swahili has become a second language spoken by tens of millions in three African Great Lakes countries (Tanzania, Kenya, and the DRC) where it is an official or national language. It is the only African language in the.

In 2016, Swahili was made a compulsory subject in all Kenyan schools. Swahili and closely related languages are spoken by relatively small numbers of people in Burundi, Comoros, Malawi, Mozambique, Uganda, Zambia and Rwanda. The language was still understood in the southern ports of the in the 20th century. Some 80 percent of approximately 49 million Tanzanians speak Swahili in addition to their first languages. The five eastern provinces of the DRC are Swahili-speaking.

Nearly half the 66 million Congolese reportedly speak it. Swahili speakers may number 120 to 150 million in total. Phonology Unlike the vast majority of Niger-Congo languages, Swahili lacks contrastive tone. That and the language's make Swahili said to be the easiest African language for an English speaker to learn. Vowels Standard Swahili has five vowel: /ɑ/, /ɛ/, /i/, /ɔ/, and /u/. Vowels are never, regardless of, but they are pronounced in full as follows:.

/ɑ/ is pronounced like the 'a' in f ather. /ɛ/ is pronounced like the 'e' in g et. /i/ is pronounced like the 'ee' in s ee.

/ɔ/ is pronounced somewhat like the 'o' in f ord. /u/ is pronounced like the 'u' in z ul u or 'oo' in l oop. Consonants Swahili consonant phonemes / ⟨m⟩ ⟨n⟩ ⟨ny⟩ ⟨ng'⟩ ᵐb ⟨mb⟩ ⁿd ⟨nd⟩ ⁿʤ ⟨nj⟩ ᵑɡ ⟨ng⟩ / ⟨b⟩ ⟨d⟩ ⟨j⟩ ⟨g⟩ ⟨p⟩ ⟨t⟩ ⟨ch⟩ ⟨k⟩ ᶬv ⟨mv⟩ ⁿz ⟨nz⟩ ⟨v⟩ ( ⟨dh⟩) ⟨z⟩ ( ⟨gh⟩) ⟨f⟩ ( ⟨th⟩) ⟨s⟩ ⟨sh⟩ ( ⟨kh⟩) ⟨h⟩ ⟨r⟩ ⟨l⟩ ⟨y⟩ ⟨w⟩ Swahili also has the phonemes /pʰ tʰ tʃʰ kʰ bʰ dʰ dʒʰ ɡʰ/. 'In some Arabic loans (nouns, verbs, adjectives) emphasis or intensity is expressed by reproducing the original emphatic consonants /dˤ, sˤ, tˤ, zˤ/ and the uvular /q/, or lengthening a vowel, where aspiration would be used in inherited Bantu words.' Orthography. This section needs additional citations for. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.

(January 2016) Swahili is currently written in an alphabet close to, except it does not use the letters Q and X. There are two for native sounds, ch and sh; c is not used apart from unassimilated English loans and, occasionally, as a substitute for k in advertisements. There are also several digraphs for Arabic sounds not distinguished in pronunciation outside of traditional Swahili areas. The language used to be written in the.

Unlike adaptations of the Arabic script for other languages, relatively little accommodation was made for Swahili. There were also differences in orthographic conventions between cities and authors and over the centuries, some quite precise but others different enough to cause difficulties with intelligibility.

/e/ and /i/, /o/ and /u/ were often conflated, but in some spellings, /e/ was distinguished from /i/ by rotating the 90° and /o/ was distinguished from /u/ by writing the backwards. Several Swahili consonants do not have equivalents in Arabic, and for them, often no special letters were created unlike, for example, script. Instead, the closest Arabic sound is substituted. Not only did that mean that one letter often stands for more than one sound, but also writers made different choices of which consonant to substitute.

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Here are some of the equivalents between Arabic Swahili and Roman Swahili: Arabic Swahili Roman Swahili Final Medial Initial Isolated ـا‬ ‬ aa ـب‬ ـبـ‬ بـ‬ ‬ b p mb mp bw pw mbw mpw ـت‬ ـتـ‬ تـ‬ ‬ t nt ـث‬ ـثـ‬ ثـ‬ ‬ th? ـج‬ ـجـ‬ جـ‬ ‬ j nj ng ng' ny ـح‬ ـحـ‬ حـ‬ ‬ h ـخ‬ ـخـ‬ خـ‬ ‬ kh h ـد‬ ‬ d nd ـذ‬ ‬ dh? ـر‬ ‬ r d nd ـز‬ ‬ z nz ـس‬ ـسـ‬ سـ‬ ‬ s ـش‬ ـشـ‬ شـ‬ ‬ sh ch ـص‬ ـصـ‬ صـ‬ ‬ s, sw ـض‬ ـضـ‬ ضـ‬ ‬ dhw ـط‬ ـطـ‬ طـ‬ ‬ t tw chw ـظ‬ ـظـ‬ ظـ‬ ‬ z th dh dhw ـع‬ ـعـ‬ عـ‬ ‬? ـغ‬ ـغـ‬ غـ‬ ‬ gh g ng ng' ـف‬ ـفـ‬ فـ‬ ‬ f fy v vy mv p ـق‬ ـقـ‬ قـ‬ ‬ k g ng ch sh ny ـك‬ ـكـ‬ كـ‬ ‬ ـل‬ ـلـ‬ لـ‬ ‬ l ـم‬ ـمـ‬ مـ‬ ‬ m ـن‬ ـنـ‬ نـ‬ ‬ n ـه‬ ـهـ‬ هـ‬ ‬ h ـو‬ ‬ w ـي‬ ـيـ‬ يـ‬ ‬ y ny That was the general situation, but conventions from Urdu were adopted by some authors so as to distinguish aspiration and /p/ from /b/: پھا‎ /pʰaa/ 'gazelle', پا‎ /paa/ 'roof'.

Although it is not found in Standard Swahili today, there is a distinction between dental and in some dialects, which is reflected in some orthographies, for example in كُٹَ‎ -kuta 'to meet' vs. كُتَ‎ -kut̠a 'to be satisfied'.

A k with the dots of y, ﮛ‬ ﮝ‬ ﮜ‬ ﮚ‬, was used for ch in some conventions; ky being historically and even contemporaneously a more accurate transcription than Roman ch. In Mombasa, it was common to use the Arabic emphatics for Cw, for example in صِصِ‎ swiswi (standard sisi) 'we' and كِطَ‎ kit̠wa (standard kichwa) 'head'. Word division differs from Roman norms. Particles such as ya, na, si, kwa, ni are joined to the following noun, and possessives such as yangu and yako are joined to the preceding noun, but verbs are written as two words, with the subject and morphemes separated from the object and root, as in aliye niambia 'he who told me'. This section needs additional citations for. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.

(January 2016) The ki-/vi- class historically consisted of two separate genders, artefacts (Bantu class 7/8, utensils and hand tools mostly) and diminutives (Bantu class 12), which were conflated at a stage ancestral to Swahili. Examples of the former are kisu 'knife', kiti 'chair' (from mti 'tree, wood'), chombo 'vessel' (a contraction of ki-ombo).

Examples of the latter are kitoto 'infant', from mtoto 'child'; kitawi 'frond', from tawi 'branch'; and chumba ( ki-umba) 'room', from nyumba 'house'. It is the diminutive sense that has been furthest extended.

An extension common to diminutives in many languages is approximation and resemblance (having a 'little bit' of some characteristic, like -y or -ish in English). For example, there is kijani 'green', from jani 'leaf' (compare English 'leafy'), kichaka 'bush' from chaka 'clump', and kivuli 'shadow' from uvuli 'shade'. A 'little bit' of a verb would be an instance of an action, and such instantiations (usually not very active ones) are found: kifo 'death', from the verb -fa 'to die'; kiota 'nest' from -ota 'to brood'; chakula 'food' from kula 'to eat'; kivuko 'a ford, a pass' from -vuka 'to cross'; and kilimia 'the ', from -limia 'to farm with', from its role in guiding planting.

A resemblance, or being a bit like something, implies marginal status in a category, so things that are marginal examples of their class may take the ki-/vi- prefixes. Jaguar xj8 vanden plas owners repair manual. One example is chura ( ki-ura) 'frog', which is only half terrestrial and therefore is marginal as an animal. This extension may account for disabilities as well: kilema 'a cripple', kipofu 'a blind person', kiziwi 'a deaf person'. Finally, diminutives often denote contempt, and contempt is sometimes expressed against things that are dangerous. This might be the historical explanation for kifaru 'rhinoceros', kingugwa 'spotted hyena', and kiboko 'hippopotamus' (perhaps originally meaning 'stubby legs').

Another class with broad semantic extension is the m-/mi- class (Bantu classes 3/4). This is often called the 'tree' class, because mti, miti 'tree(s)' is the prototypical example.

However, it seems to cover vital entities neither human nor typical animals: trees and other plants, such as mwitu 'forest' and mtama 'millet' (and from there, things made from plants, like mkeka 'mat'); supernatural and natural forces, such as mwezi 'moon', mlima 'mountain', mto 'river'; active things, such as moto 'fire', including active body parts ( moyo 'heart', mkono 'hand, arm'); and human groups, which are vital but not themselves human, such as mji 'village', and, by analogy, mzinga 'beehive/cannon'. From the central idea of tree, which is thin, tall, and spreading, comes an extension to other long or extended things or parts of things, such as mwavuli 'umbrella', moshi 'smoke', msumari 'nail'; and from activity there even come active instantiations of verbs, such as mfuo 'metal forging', from -fua 'to forge', or mlio 'a sound', from -lia 'to make a sound'. Words may be connected to their class by more than one metaphor. For example, mkono is an active body part, and mto is an active natural force, but they are also both long and thin. Things with a trajectory, such as mpaka 'border' and mwendo 'journey', are classified with long thin things, as in many other languages with noun classes. This may be further extended to anything dealing with time, such as mwaka 'year' and perhaps mshahara 'wages'. Animals exceptional in some way and so not easily fitting in the other classes may be placed in this class.

The other classes have foundations that may at first seem similarly counterintuitive. In short,. Classes 1–2 include most words for people: kin terms, professions, ethnicities, etc., including translations of most English words ending in -er. They include a couple generic words for animals: mnyama 'beast', mdudu 'bug'. Classes 5–6 have a broad semantic range of groups, expanses, and augmentatives. Although interrelated, it is easier to illustrate if broken down:.

Augmentatives, such as joka 'serpent' from nyoka 'snake', lead to titles and other terms of respect (the opposite of diminutives, which lead to terms of contempt): Bwana 'Sir', shangazi 'aunt', fundi 'craftsman', kadhi 'judge'. Most Swahili adjectives begin with either a consonant or the vowels i- or e-, listed separately above. The few adjectives beginning with other vowels do not agree with all noun classes since some are restricted to humans.

NC 1 m(w)- is mw- before a and o, and reduces to m- before u; wa- does not change; and ki-, vi-, mi- become ch-, vy-, my- before o but not before u: mwanana, waanana 'gentle', mwororo, waororo, myororo, chororo, vyororo 'mild, yielding', mume, waume, kiume, viume 'male'. In a few verbs: kwenda, kwisha Dialects and closely related languages This list is based on Swahili and Sabaki: a linguistic history.

Dialects Modern standard Swahili is based on Kiunguja, the dialect spoken in, but there are numerous dialects of Swahili, some of which are mutually unintelligible, such as the following: Old dialects Maho (2009) considers these to be distinct languages:. is spoken in the Kerimba Islands and northern coastal Mozambique. is spoken by the ethnic minorities in and around the town of on the southern coast of Somalia. is spoken by the minority ethnic group on the coast and islands on both sides of the Somali–Kenyan border and in the (the northern part of the Lamu archipelago) and is also called Kitikuu and Kigunya. (extinct)., in Gujarat (extinct) The rest of the dialects are divided by him into two groups:. Mombasa–Lamu Swahili.

Lamu. Kiamu is spoken in and around the island of (Amu). Kipate is a local dialect of, considered to be closest to the original dialect of Kingozi. Kingozi is an ancient dialect spoken on the Indian Ocean coast between Lamu and Somalia and is sometimes still used in poetry. It is often considered the source of Swahili. Mombasa. Chijomvu is a subdialect of the Mombasa area.

Kimvita is the major dialect of Mombasa (also known as 'Mvita', which means 'war', in reference to the many wars which were fought over it), the other major dialect alongside Kiunguja. Kingare is the subdialect of the Mombasa area. Kimrima is spoken around, and.

Kiunguja is spoken in and environs on. Kitumbatu (Pemba) dialects occupy the bulk of the island. Mambrui, Malindi. Chichifundi, a dialect of the southern Kenya coast. Chwaka. Kivumba, a dialect of the southern Kenya coast. Nosse Be (Madagascar).

Pemba Swahili. Kipemba is a local dialect of the. Kitumbatu and Kimakunduchi are the countryside dialects of the island of Zanzibar. Kimakunduchi is a recent renaming of 'Kihadimu'; the old name means 'serf' and so is considered pejorative. Makunduchi. Mafia, Mbwera.

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Kilwa (extinct). Kimgao used to be spoken around and to the south.

Maho includes the various dialects as a third group. Most other authorities consider Comorian to be a language, distinct from Swahili. Other regions In, where the language predominates, a variant of Swahili referred to as (also known as Chimbalazi) is spoken along the coast by the. Another Swahili dialect known as also serves as the mother tongue of the minority ethnic group, which lives in the tiny as well as the southern region.

In, an estimated 22,000 people speak Swahili. Most are descendants of those repatriated after the fall of the. Swahili poets.

See also.